D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
experienced in some mass tourism destinations, such as
tourists, who appreciate the uniqueness of their resources
Benidorm and Costa Brava in Spain, or Faliraki and
and o!erings. Although the model clearly di!erentiates
Malia in Greece. Once destinations have reached that
destinations to distinctive categories it fails to recognise
stage there is limited choice. The majority try to attract
that the majority of destinations lay between the two
more mass tourism so they can increase their pro"tability
ends of the continuum. It also fails to relate to the
through volume. Increasingly, however, some regions
di!erent stages of the life cycle and to the inevitability
aim to renovate their properties and facilities and re-
experienced in several regions where destinations are
launch their o!erings. The Calvia example in Mallorca,
launched as status areas and gradually slip to commodity
which decided to demolish three hotels in order to im-
status (Buhalis, 1999a). Nevertheless, the model clearly
prove public areas and to enhance the quality of its
contributes to tourism marketing by correlating product
products set new best practices which may be followed by
attributes with willingness to pay and also by illustrating
other regions.
clearly that destinations should decide on what directionthey should plan and manage their resources and facilities.
7.3.2. Gilbert's strategic framework
Based on the above rational the second strategic
7.3.3. Poon's yexible specialisation
framework introduced by Gilbert (1984,1990) argues that
A third strategic approach for tourism is proposed by
destinations can be classi"ed on a continuum between
Poon (1989,1993), based on the concept of #exible
a statusa and a commoditya area, as illustrated in
specialisationa of the tourism business. Poon examines
Fig. 3. Status areasa achieve intentional demand as
the tourism industry processes and proposes a strategy to
a result of the unique product attributes perceived by the
enable tourism organisations to improve their com-
tourism market. These unique attributes may be genuine
petitiveness. Poon argues that #exible specialisationa is
or imaginative and thus, a destination is regarded as
a strategy of permanent innovationa and ceaseless
irreplaceable, which increases consumers' loyalty and
changea which provides for new tourisma. New tourism
willingness to pay. In the commodity statusa case, desti-
is #exible, segmented, customised to the tourist's needs
nations are substitutable, very sensitive to price and
and diagonally integrated. In contrast, old tourism can
economic changes, while consumers have a low aware-
be characterised as mass, standardised and rigidly
ness of any unique bene"ts or attributes. Thus, travellers
packageda. The main sources of #exibility for service
base their decision to visit the area merely on price, while
in the organisation, management, marketing,
the demand for the destination is incidental and destina-
distribution and other forms of interaction and interre-
tions are unable to attract high spenders. Despite the fact
lationships among guests, hotels, suppliers, distributors.
that the sustainability of resources is not discussed ex-
What is important however is not each of these stand-
plicitly by the model, it is quite evident that status
alone aspects but how they are coupled to create com-
areasa manage their resources as product attributes and
petitive advantages and hence, capabilities to move with
therefore are appreciated by consumers who are willing
the marketa (Poon, 1993). This is a timely model, which
to pay more.
predicted the impact of information technology on the
Gilbert (1990) asserts that destinations should attempt
both decision making and consumer behaviour. Industry
to become status areasa, rather than a commodity
innovation is critical in this strategy and the utilisation of
areaa one, in order to improve their image, loyalty and
new technology provides the opportunity to customise
economic bene"ts. It is suggested that destinations
products according to customers' speci"c requirements.
should di!erentiate their tourism products in order to
Hence destinations can organise their assets and
achieve a unique tourist product bene"ta. This will
attributes in such a way which will enable them to
enable them to establish their position in the interna-
specialise their tourism product according to particular
tional market, and attract both high spenders and loyal
demand needs.
Fig. 3. Gilbert's di!erentiation strategy. Source: Adapted from Gilbert (1990, p. 25).
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
Although Poon's model revolutionised tourism think-
ness to pay, and are against demand trends. In addition,
ing it is still di$cult to implement at the destination level.
the high-volume-low-pro"t marginsa strategy has cata-
The majority of infrastructure and superstructure is
strophic social and environmental impacts on destina-
based on "xed assets, which cannot be altered easily and
tions. As a result, not only their sustainability may be
therefore they have a limited degree of #exibility. This is
jeopardised but also the competitiveness of the region as
more evident at destinations at the consolidation stages,
a whole. E!ectively, these strategies push destinations
which are unable to reinvent themselves and approach
through their life cycle stages and force them to reach
new markets. Nevertheless, the model clearly contributes
their consolidation stage. Destinations therefore should
to the "eld by encouraging tourism organisations and
de"ne and not exceed their carrying capacities in order to
destinations to challenge existing strategies and practices
sustain their resources and at the same avoid jeopardis-
and to forcing them to approach new tourism with new
ing consumers satisfaction.
tools introduced by technology. Concentrating on core
This is re#ected on both Gilbert and Poon's strategies
functions and outsourcing all peripheral activities to net-
which agree that destinations should aim to achieve
works of virtual co-operations should enable destina-
a status areaa or nichea orientation through di!erenti-
tions and enterprises to innovate and to adapt to the
ation, in order to increase consumer satisfaction as well
needs of consumers constantly.
as to maximise the bene"ts for tourism regions. Thisstrategy is already adopted in several resort areas, such as
7.3.4. Synthesis of strategic frameworks and lessons
Valencia in Spain, where it is recognised that the need for
for strategic destination marketing
diversi"cation and di!erentiation has now become es-
The discussion of the three models provides several
sential owing to the level of competitiveness that has
interesting lessons. A close examination of strategies re-
been attained (and can be foreseen) in the world tourist
veals that they share a similar base. Porter's di!erenti-
marketa (Fayos-Sola, 1992). It is also particularly useful
ationa, Gilbert's status areaa and Poon's #exible
for insular, peripheral and remote destinations, where
specialisationa describe how "rms and destinations can
a limited number of economic and "nancial resources are
achieve value-competitive advantages. Consumers ap-
available. However, this strategy should not serve as an
preciate special attributes and values and as a result they
excuse for principals at destinations for not improving
are inclined to visit areas more regularly, to increase their
their e$ciency and minimising their production costs.
loyalty and to pay higher prices. In contrast, cost leader-
Although providing unique service to satisfy tourist
shipa, commodity areaa and standardisationa or the
needs should be their priority, o!ering perceived value
Fordism production modela describe the e!orts of "rms
for money would determine their competitiveness in the
or destinations to achieve cost competitive advantagea
marketplace (Murphy & Pritchard, 1997). As most desti-
by o!ering their products for less than their competitors.
nations consist of networks of tourism suppliers and
This is achieved through economies of scale, standardisa-
principals, there is much overlapping between the stra-
tion and mass production. Destinations and tourism
tegic orientation followed at the macro and micro level.
products are treated as commodities and decisions are
Hence a close collaboration between the private and
merely based on price. Hence the underlying concept of
public sector is required. Destinations and enterprises
the two alternative strategies is the relationship between
following a status areaa strategy would probably en-
volume and price. The "rst set of strategies supports
hance tourists' satisfaction, as well as their competitive-
a low-volume-high-pro"t margina approach, where
ness. The formulation of unique and customised products
each consumer is paying premium prices for unique
by using #exibility and co-operation will also increase
products, whilst the second set of strategies follows
tourists' willingness to pay and their loyalty, while
a high-volume-low-pro"t margina approach.
responding to new tourism demand trends.
Tourism destinations should avoid the cost advantage
Unfortunately, some destinations can no longer be
strategies as they are based on mass production and
positioned as irreplaceable unique products, due to
consumption and assume unlimited production capacity
over-development and degradation of their resources.
and resources. The inseparability of the tourism product
Tourism supply has exceeded their carrying capacity and
determines that consumers should be present at the time
they have reached the saturation or decline phases of
of product delivery. Therefore, the interaction of con-
their life cycle. For example several Mediterranean cos-
sumers with socio-cultural and environmental scarce re-
tasa have been overdeveloped to such an extent that only
sources can decay the very reasons, which attract people
a high-volume, low-pro"t margin orientation is feasible.
to places. Seasonality also generates demand peaks and
When resorts reach their saturation level only a cost
in#ates the problem during certain periods every year.
leadershipa or mass productiona strategy can be em-
Although economic bene"ts can also be achieved by
ployed, as they are unable to provide any speci"c tourist
using the commodity areaa or the standard product
product bene"ta. The attraction of the lower end of the
modela, it is argued that on the long term these ap-
market is inevitable and as a consequence, there are no
proaches reduce tourist satisfaction, consumer willing-
alternative strategies. In this case, the minimisation of
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
further social and environmental damages as well as
goods. Understanding the core product as well as the
attempts to improve the surrounding environment
facilitating, supportive and augmented products for each
should also be the primary objective.
target market is of paramount importance for destination
In addition, a re-positioning of the product can also be
marketing. The augmented environment will include
attempted although it is quite di$cult to alter the image
intangible elements such as interaction and customer
of destinations. For example the Calvia Municipality in
participation as well as accessibility and physical envi-
Mallorca has implemented a dynamic plan for enhancing
ronment (Kotler, Bowen & Makens, 1996, p. 276).
the quality of the tourism o!ering through the enhance-
DMOs have an overall responsibility for the entire
ment of the landscape and the regeneration of environ-
destination product and through incentives and policies
mental resources. As a result, intentional demand has
facilitate the development of products, which is desirable
increased and a higher willingness to pay is experienced,
from the demand side, and at the same time does not
enhancing the pro"tability of the private sector and
jeopardise local resources. DMOs should therefore be
boosting the economic impacts of tourism. Another suc-
the guardians of the image and resources of destinations.
cessful example of destination management and market-
However, throughout the world tourism services are of-
ing is also Las Vegas. Although it is not yet on the
fered by small and medium tourism enterprises (SMTEs)
maturity level, the local industry constantly undertakes
which tend to be family managed. The challenge for
initiatives to reinvent and reposition itself. They diversi"-
destination management organisations is therefore to
ed their target markets by developing theme parks within
provide leadership in the development of innovative
major hotels in order to attract families and young chil-
products and create local partnerships for the delivery of
dren. Several new hotels open every year while older
seamless experiences. These partnerships should bring
properties are being renovated, often by demolishing and
together both private and public sector and should en-
rebuilding them. The old stripa was also relaunched to
sure that the long-term competitiveness of the tourism
attract visitors from the new hotels and casinos by cover-
product prevails all decision making processes (Buhalis
ing the street and projecting a lazer show.
& Cooper, 1998).
DMOs also need to enhance and diwerentiate their
products by emphasising their uniqueness. Destination
8. Destination marketing mix
marketers often adopt a mass tourism orientation, be-cause they falsely believe that tourism products can grow
Once a tourism management and marketing strategy
inde"nitely. Hence, generic characteristics of destinations
has been decided destinations will have to develop their
are frequently emphasised in all marketing campaigns as
marketing mix. This will enable them to approach each
they attempt to attract too many target markets. Sun and
target market with a comprehensive range of o!erings
sea dominate the promotion of Mediterranean destina-
and to propose an integrated solution to consumer needs
tions; exotic surroundings are emphasised for long haul
and wants. Developing a marketing mix for destinations
destinations and skiing is o!ered by Alpine resorts. How-
will depend on each destination, the types of target mar-
ever, it is increasingly evident that new-sophisticated
kets and a whole range of issues on the external environ-
consumers seek authentic and unique experiences. They
ment. Nevertheless, some principles need to be addressed
are also willing to pay a premium, but only if the product
and the following text illustrates examples and frame-
is signi"cantly better than that of competitors. Hence,
works which can assist destination marketers to decide
destinations will need to re-assess the entire range of their
on the most appropriate marketing mixes.
resources and identify suitable tourism products for eachparticular target market segment.
8.1. Formulating the destination product
Themed or alternative tourism enables destinations to
provide unique experiences and achieve their status area.
Destinations are amalgams of individually produced
For example, Greece could concentrate on its heritage
tourism amenities and services (accommodation, trans-
and history and o!er ancient/mythology experiences;
portation, catering, entertainment, etc.) and a wide range
of public goods (such as landscape, scenery, sea, lakes,
themes; Romania should explore the Dracula myth; and
socio-cultural surroundings, atmosphere, etc.). All these
Bali should concentrate on the unique religious rituals
elements are branded together under the name of the
and cultural traditions. Natural, agricultural, cultural,
destination. The ubiquity of the destination concept ef-
artistic, heritage, resources of destinations can be used
fectively means that the tourism product for each pro-
accordingly. Tourism should also contribute to the pres-
spective traveller is very subjective and depends heavily
ervation of these resources by increasing the awareness of
on his/her image and expectations of the place. Neverthe-
both locals and visitors and by providing funds for the
less, the tourism product for a region consists of the
conservation and regeneration of resources. Attracting
entire range of facilities and services o!ered locally, plus
appropriate target market segments should also assist
all socio-cultural, environmental resources and public
the reduction of seasonality, as special theme o!erings, as
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
well as festivals and events should enable destinations
In several leisure destinations tour operators also play
to increase their demand during the low season. For
a critical role in determining the price consumers pay for
example, the renovation of physical features and natural
products locally. This has signi"cant implications for
resources on Mallorca, or the development of innovative
regions which depend on intermediaries (tour operators)
new products such as Festivals and themed experiences
for their clientele, and in particular for destinations which
(e.g. Edinburgh New Year's Eve and summer festivals)
have an oversupply of facilities. Tour operators in
also enable destinations to manage their product life
Europe and especially the larger/mass/integrated oper-
cycle e!ectively. The aim is to maintain the destination
ators, such as Airtours, Thomson, TUI, and Neckerman,
to the maturity/consolidation stages and to avoid the
exercise bargaining and coercive power because of the
stagnation, saturation and decline stages in their life
large volume of tourists they represent and reduce the
prices of principals at destinations. This enables them too!er competitively priced products at their marketplace.
8.2. Pricing the destination
However, as local suppliers may not be able to gainenough pro"t from the basic product (i.e., accommoda-
A wide range of pricing techniques are applicable to
tion and transfers) they may need to overprice other
tourism destinations (Meidan, 1995; Kotler et al., 1996).
element of the product (i.e., catering, entertainment, local
However, pricing is a di$cult process for destinations as
excursions) in order to boost their pro"tability (Buhalis,
it is often determined by the pricing and marketing pol-
icies of individual enterprises both at the destination and
The higher the expenditure of tourists locally, the bet-
distributors at the place of origin. Local suppliers can
ter it is for destinations, as it increases the pro"tability of
have their own policy and thus co-ordinating and estab-
local enterprises and enhances the economic bene"ts.
lishing a destination wide pricing strategy is almost
Consumers take into consideration the total cost of
unachievable. Furthermore, national economic policies
a trip, i.e., before, during and after their visit. In most
and economic conditions in the international market-
cases they have not visited the destination before they
place also in#uence pricing. Therefore, both macro-
purchase their travel product. Hence, pricing plays an
and microeconomics determine the pricing function of
important role in determining the image of destinations.
tourism organisations locally and destinations. The cost
Perhaps the biggest travel expenditure is transport to
of living and employment, as well as in#ation, exchange
and from the destination, especially for long haul trips,
rates and local e$ciency and competition all contribute
and thus can determine the willingness and ability of
to the pricing equation. Tourism in Japan is inevitably
travellers to visit destinations.
much more expensive than tourism in Indonesia due to
Destinations can only charge premium prices if they
the di!erences between the two economies. Macroeco-
o!er a unique experience. Venice for example pro"ts
nomic changes have great in#uence on the pricing of
from its unique product attributes and charges substan-
destination and the attraction of consumers. For in-
tially higher prices than other Italian destinations. How-
stance, the depreciation of the Spanish Peseta and the
ever, increasingly consumers are unimpressed by tourism
Greek Drachma as well as the high in#ation rate of the
facilities and products, as they have travelled extensively
Turkish Lira have all determined the pricing of their
and have acquired a wealth of experiences. Global com-
destinations and have in#uenced their competitiveness
petition and oversupply, as well as the emergence of new
(Edwards, 1993).
destinations in third world countries with lower labour
Pricing the destination and all the individual elements
costs, generate frequent price wars especially for con-
of the local tourism product is a very complex process.
strained capacity at the last minute. As a result, con-
Principals tend to have their own pricing mix and pol-
sumers are increasingly prepared to pay less for getting
icies. DMOs can control elements of pricing through
more. Nevertheless, it is important for consumers to
regulation, advice and through partnerships with the
perceive prices as fair and good value for money, because
private sector. However, DMOs often provide guidelines
dissatisfaction damages the competitiveness of the desti-
by suggesting minimum prices to protect small suppliers
from "erce competition and maximum prices to protectconsumers from overcharging. For example, in several
8.3. Distributing tourism destinations
destinations the public sector determines the lowest priceper category for accommodation, advises on the retail
Distribution or marketing channels are de"ned as sets
price of consumer goods and foods, set the maximum
of interdependent organisations involved in the process
prices for transportation or taxi services. Although en-
of making a product or service available for use or
forcing pricing policies is extremely di$cult, destination
consumption. The ultimate objective of distribution
managers should formulate partnerships with principals
channel can be summarised as: delivering the right qual-
and train them on the importance of maintaining a fairly
ity and quantity of a product, in the right place, at the
standardised pricing structure and policy.
right time, at the right cost, to the right customer. Several
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
important distribution and marketing functions per-
destinations need to provide travel agencies with in-
formed by channel members, such as: carrying of inven-
formation and promotional material, as well as to or-
tory; demand generation through promotion; market
ganise educational trips and provide incentives for their
information collection and analysis; negotiation between
sta! in order to promote the destination to consumers.
channel members and consumers; physical possession
Workshops and road shows may also increase awareness
and distribution; risk taking; payment and "nancial
and provide positive impressions. Travel trade manuals
arrangements; and after-sale service. Distribution is
serve as reference books for intermediaries o!ering com-
emerging as a critical element of strategic management
prehensive information about destination regions. Devel-
and as one of the few remaining sources of real competi-
oping long-term partnerships with tour operators and
tive advantage. Apart from in#uencing costs, increasingly
leisure travel agencies is therefore extremely signi"cant
distribution channels also support and enable product
for the success of leisure destinations.
di!erentiation by adding value on the product and by
The concentration of the European tourism industry
contributing to the total brand experience and projecting
increases the power of certain integrated travel organisa-
powerful images.
tions. As a result, they increasingly control more than 70
The entire range of players that bring together tourism
per cent of the market and can use a wide range of
demand and supply for a region formulate its distribu-
marketing techniques to determine consumer choice.
tion channel. Distribution of destinations becomes in-
Table 5 illustrates the penetration of the largest tour
creasingly more important, not only because it is
operating groups in the European market and clearly
estimate to cost 20}30 per cent of the product price but
demonstrates that leisure movement in Europe is di-
also because it determines whether and under what con-
rected to a large extent by a small number of integrated
ditions suppliers can meet their target markets. This is
tour operators (O'Brien, 1996; Bywater, 1992,1997). Since
the case especially in the European leisure market con-
then more concentration is experienced daily as oper-
text as concentration has led four major companies to
ators merge to develop their volume and take advantage
dominate the market. Business travellers have strict
from economies of scale and negotiation power. In addi-
schedules and use intermediaries to organise their itiner-
tion, a wide range of smaller specialised tour operators
aries. In contrast, leisure travellers tend to have much
exists in each market promoting specialised products.
greater #exibility and price elasticity. As a consequence,
Although, there is a concentration on leisure distribu-
intermediaries can in#uence their decision and choice of
tion channels, consumers become more independent and
sophisticated and use the entire range of tools to arrange
Business travellers can be in#uenced indirectly by
their travel. The availability of information on the Inter-
people who are responsible for arranging business meet-
net and the emergence of electronic intermediaries revol-
ings and conferences. These include corporate travel o$-
utionise distribution. Destinations that appreciate the
cers and administrative sta! in organisations who choose
new developments and build comprehensive tools for
the location of meetings, as well as services suppliers. For
their local suppliers increasingly improve their ability to
destinations to attract business travellers they need to
reach their strategic objectives. IT enables consumers to
develop strong links with the local business and aca-
seek for information as well as construct and purchase
demic communities as well as with various types of asso-
individual itineraries on-line, and thus it revolutionised
ciations. This will enable DMOs to appreciate the needsof business travellers and to provide convenient andadequate products. Often local associations, chambers,
businesses or academics need to be closely involved in
Penetration of the largest tour operator groups in the European leisuremarket in 1994/5
order to attract and arrange meetings, incentives, con-
ferences, and exhibitions (MICE) at the destination. Con-
sequently, relationships with business travel agencies as
well as conference and exhibition organisers are impor-tant to attract and satisfy the MICE markets.
United Kingdom Thomson/Airtours/
Leisure travellers have a much wider choice and #exib-
ility and therefore a di!erent distribution strategy and
mix are required. Domestic tourists usually make direct
arrangements and often use their own transport, whereas
Airtours (Spies, Tjaereborg)
international leisure travellers tend to be more in#uenced
Budget/JWT (First Choice)
by intermediaries. Representation of destinations in tour
operators' brochures determines their ability to attract
the appropriate volume and quality of consumers.
Nouvelles Frontie res/Club Med 25
Leisure travellers often require travel agencies advice onselecting appropriate destinations and products. Hence,
!Source: Adapted from O'Brien (1996) and Bywater (1997,1992).
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
destination marketing. Not only do they provide oppor-
ness (Woodside, 1990; Faulkner, 1997; McWilliams &
tunities for reducing dependency on traditional inter-
Crompton, 1997; Schoenbachler, Benedetto, Gordon
mediaries for remote, peripheral and insular destinations
& Kaminski, 1995). Advertisements use slogans, which
but they also provide a mechanism to develop and pro-
change frequently in order to follow tourism demand
mote specialised products for mini market segments
trends and to update the image of destinations (Morgan
(Buhalis, 1998).
& Pritchard, 1998). For example, Spain recently changed
Electronic distribution also o!ers opportunities for
its slogan from everything under the suna to passion
closer interaction and co-operation at the local level. In
for lifea. This change re#ected the refocus of its product
several places where IT has been used extensively, such as
away from the traditional sun and seaa product to
Tyrol, Ireland and Singapore, an integration of local
a much more sophisticated o!ering based on socio-
resources and organisations enables suppliers at the des-
cultural diversity and the life-style of local people
tination level to develop and deliver seamless tourism
(Fayos-Sola, 1996).
products to consumers. Destination Management Sys-
In addition, DMOs often use below the line promo-
tems will need to be developed in order to enable the
tional techniques. They participate in major annual
networking of all local tourism providers as well as
tourism and travel fairs in Berlin, London, Milan, Mad-
a comprehensive and innovative interface between the
rid, Paris and elsewhere. There they have the opportunity
destinations and their prospective and current clients
to meet intermediaries and members of the public to
promote their o!erings. They produce brochures, whichthey distribute to all their partners in the industry and to
8.4. Promoting the destination
prospective consumers who require information on thedestination. Brochures normally show local attractions
Promoting destinations essentially implies the devel-
and activities, whilst they also feature a number of local
opment of communicating channels with clientele and
suppliers such as hotels, entertainment and catering es-
other stakeholders to increase awareness and persuade to
tablishments (Wicks & Schuett, 1991,1993). In addition,
purchase products. Destination promotion requires
travel trade manuals o!er information about the destina-
a co-ordinated campaign and message for all local princi-
tion to the travel trade and provide a reference guide.
pals and suppliers. Designing a cost-e!ective promo-
Although DMOs often operate information o$ces
tional mix is di$cult because of the diversity of tourism
where they provide information about local suppliers
suppliers at destinations and the spread of consumers
they tend to refrain from selling direct, as they regard
throughout the world. Achieving a consensus on the
themselves as facilitators rather than intermediaries and
marketing campaign as well as raising adequate funds to
also avoid to be seen as promoters of individual products
develop and implement it is one of the most challenging
and services against other local suppliers. Instead, when
tasks for destination marketing. Traditionally, DMOs
asked by prospective customers they provide contact
lead promotional campaigns, whilst suppliers participate
details of local suppliers and advise consumers on the
and contribute. A wide range of techniques are used, both
ones that are likely to satisfy their demand. However,
above and below the line (Kotler et al., 1996; Horner
increasingly DMOs are forced to play a more active
& Swarbrooke, 1996; Millington & Cleverdon, 1999).
selling role as consumers appreciate an one-stop-service.
Above the line promotional activity includes advert-
In many destinations they are also required to justify
ising on television, radio, and press as well as using poster
their income or to contribute towards their expenses and
campaigns. Targeting the right market with the right
hence they charge commissions for local bookings and
message at the right time is always di$cult, especially for
sell maps, local guidebooks and souvenirs to generate
destinations, which attract consumers from several geo-
income. Direct marketing is also used as destinations can
graphical regions as well as cultural and linguistic back-
identify prospective customers and promote elements of
grounds. Although very expensive, above the line
the local o!erings that satisfy the speci"c demand. Devel-
advertisement can assist the development of the destina-
oping relationship marketing and loyalty clubs enables
tion brand as well as in#uence a large number to visitors
repeat visitors to be recognised and appreciated. Dis-
to travel to the destination or to extend their visit (Bon-
count schemes and other add-ones are currently develop-
ham & Mak, 1996). Crouch (1994) has illustrated that
ing for several destinations to reward and maintain their
although many countries have substantially increased
loyal clientele.
their spending on tourism promotions there is little evid-
Finally, public relations are extensively used for most
ence of their e!ectiveness as studies which have attem-
tourism destinations. Destination representatives at na-
pted to evaluate the promotional impact empirically
tional level establish tourism o$ces in their major mar-
have generally produced inconclusive and varied results.
kets to distribute promotional material and information
Nevertheless, DMOs are increasingly being held ac-
as well as through their embassies. In addition, public
countable for generating adequate results through
relations are used to generate news stories, articles and
advertising and for measuring advertising e!ective-
publicity in order to develop the awareness of consumers
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
and persuade them to purchase the products. Often host-
and public sectors can improve the tourism product by
ing a journalist or a celebrity in the destination can
investment in resources, as well as the implementation of
generate more interest than any other forms of promo-
a comprehensive marketing strategy and mix which sup-
tion because consumers are more passive receivers than
ports the competitiveness of the destination. This is parti-
with advertising. Public relations are also critical for the
cularly important for small and medium-sized tourism
development and updating of the right image (Morgan
enterprises, which traditionally dominate local supply
& Pritchard, 1998; Kotler et al., 1996; Middleton, 1992).
but lack management and marketing expertise to operatetheir business professionally and "nancial resources toapproach their target markets.
9. Marketing competitive destinations for the future
Taking advantage of new technologies and the Internet
can also enable destinations to enhance their com-
Destination marketing is increasingly becoming ex-
petitiveness. Technology can improve the e$ciency of all
tremely competitive worldwide. Providing innovative
local suppliers and also provide tools for the develop-
and well co-ordinated tourism products is therefore ex-
ment and delivery of di!erentiated tourism products.
ceedingly important for tourism regions. Consumers as-
Provision of information on local facilities and attrac-
sess their travel experience as a whole and they associate
tions and the ability to reserve the whole range of
destinations with the entire range of local producers and
tourism products determines the ability to attract the
suppliers. Producing innovative and specialised tourism
new and sophisticated types of tourism demand. The
products will enable destinations to attract intentional
recent evolution of destination management systems
demand and to di!erentiate their products. Flexible
(DMSs) enables destinations to co-ordinate the entire
specialisation will also support local suppliers and the
range of products and services o!ered locally and to
region as a whole to evolve with consumer trends and
promote them globally. The provision of di!erentiated
support the requirements of the emerging sophisticated
and tailor-made products becomes much easier as con-
clientele as well as compete globally. Destinations, which
sumers can assemble specialised products and construct
appreciate these principles, can develop and maintain
their own itinerary. The availability of information on
competitive advantage and as a result achieve their stra-
local resources and services reduces the cost of individual
tegic objectives.
travel and enables destinations to o!er mass-customised
Partnerships between the public and private sector and
close co-operation between all local suppliers is key to
More importantly the new IT tools enable even small-
the ability of destinations to o!er quality products. Ex-
er and peripheral players to compete on equal footage
ceeding consumers' expectations is instrumental for the
with larger and more central ones and therefore provide
ability of both suppliers and destinations to attract visi-
an unprecedented opportunity to enhance their com-
tors in the long term. Hence the competitiveness of each
petitiveness. One of the major bene"ts is the reduction of
supplier locally as well as their distributors determines
dependency on intermediaries for the distribution of
the competitiveness of destinations. Local suppliers
tourism products. As a consequence, tourism suppliers
should co-operate rather than compete. Buhalis and
are able to improve their negotiation power with power-
Cooper (1998) argue that tourism suppliers at destina-
ful tour operators and can develop a healthier distribu-
tions need to mature and understand that they should
tion mix. This is particularly signi"cant for remote,
not compete with each other at the destination level.
peripheral and insular destinations where local principals
Instead they should join forces and pool resources to
and authorities have a great dependency on tourism for
develop and implement comprehensive marketing strat-
their lifehood but lack expertise and resources to under-
egies which enable them to compete with other destina-
take comprehensive marketing campaigns. Partnerships
tions. The rapid development of new destinations,
marketing through loyalty/fun clubs enabling destina-
especially in third-world countries generates an unprece-
tions to develop long-term relationships with consumers
dented level of competition. They can o!er unspoiled
bene"t both destinations and suppliers. DMSs should
natural landscapes and authentic socio-cultural re-
also be utilised to optimise tourism impacts by providing
sources inexpensively. In contrast, most traditional desti-
an e!ective mechanism to bridge the expectations of both
nations su!er from their own success and the lack of
consumers and local residents with their experiences
a strict rational planning and management system. Hav-
from tourism (Buhalis, 1993,1994,1997,1998).
ing gone through most of the stages of their life cycle they
Finally, tourism destinations should learn from past
have reached maturity or saturation and this has forced
mistakes and appreciate that their strategic management
them to rely mass tourism for their operations. Often
and marketing must lead to the optimisation of tourism
facilities require urgent renovation, but lack of "nancial
impacts and the achievement of their strategic objectives for
resources and the unwillingness of consumers to pay
all stakeholders. Hitherto, destinations have su!ered
jeopardise the competitiveness of destinations further.
because they wrongly assumed that the higher the vol-
Initiatives at the local level facilitated by both private
ume of tourists, the more bene"ts they can achieve.
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
However, it is evident that limits on the development of
Baker, K. G., Hozier Jr., G. C., & Rogers, R. D. (1994). Marketing
tourism activity should be imposed in order to avoid
research theory and methodology and the tourism industry: A non-
over-exploitation of local resources. Although marketing
technical discussion. Journal of Travel Research, 32(3), 3}7.
Baloglu, S., & Brinberg, D. (1997). A
has often been regarded as an enemy of sustainability,
!ective images of tourism des-
tinations. Journal of Travel Research, 35(4), 11}15.
destination authorities and principals need to realise that
Berg, L. van den, Borg, J. van der, & Meer, J. van der (1995). Urban
strategic marketing should be used to achieve destination
Tourism: Performance and strategies in eight European cities. Alder-
policies. A comprehensive marketing strategy should en-
shot: Avebury.
able managers and planers to identify appropriate target
Bonham, C., & Mak, J. (1996). Private versus public "nancing of state
destination promotion. Journal of Travel Research, 35(2), 3
markets and to maximise economic bene
"ts locally with-
Bordas, E. (1994a). Competitiveness of tourist destinations in long
out jeopardising local resources. A suitable communica-
distance markets, Revue de Tourisme, 49(3), 3}9.
tion strategy should support destination authorities to
Bordas, M. (1994b). Competitiveness of tourist destinations in long
convey their message and promote environmentally
distance markets. Etudes et Memoires, Aix-en-Provence: Centre des
friendly practices locally.
Hautes Etudes Touristiques.
Briguglio, L., Archer, B., Jafari, J., & Wall, G. (Eds.). (1996). Sustainable
tourism in islands and small states: Issues and policies, London:Pinter.
Briguglio, L., Butler, R., Harrison, D. & Filho, W. L. (Eds.). (1996).
Sustainable tourism in islands and small states: Case studies, London:Pinter.
In conclusion, destination marketing is becoming
BTA. (1999). Business tourism leads the way. A report by the Business
more complex as tourists consume regions as experien-
Tourism Forum and the Business Tourism Advisory Committee,
ces, often ignoring that tourism products consist of
January. London: British Tourism Authority.
a great number of individually produced products and
(1993). Regional integrated computer information
reservation management systems as a strategic tool for the small
services. Global competition and industry concentration
and medium tourism enterprises. Tourism Management, 14(5),
develop new challenges. In this sense, destination mar-
keters have to achieve the strategic objectives set through
Buhalis, D. (1994). Information and telecommunications technologies
as a strategic tool for small and medium tourism enterprises in the
analysis and match the appropriate de-
mand with supply, by using the entire range of marketing
contemporary business environment. In A. Seaton, et al., Tourism
state of the art: The Strathclyde symposium (pp. 254}275).
tools for communicating with consumers and suppliers.
England: Wiley.
Global competition and the new, experienced, demand-
Buhalis, D. (1995). The impact of information telecommunication tech-
ing and sophisticated travellers reposition destination
nologies on tourism channels: implications for the small and medium
marketing to be the main interface between consumers
sized tourism enterprises. Ph.D. thesis, University of Surrey,
and local principals. Consumers are increasingly follow-
Guildford, UK.
Buhalis, D. (1997). Information and telecommunication technology as
ing special interests and regard their trips as both
a strategic tool for economic, social and environmental bene"ts
recreational and educational experiences. Therefore, des-
enhancement of tourism at destination regions. Progress in Tourism
tination themes and their interpretation become more
and Hospitality Research, 3(1), 71}93.
important for the future. Training of human resources as
Buhalis, D. (1998). Strategic use of information technologies in the
well as co-operation between competing and com-
tourism industry. Tourism Management, 19(5), 409}421.
Buhalis, D. (1999a). Limits of tourism development in peripheral desti-
plementary destinations enable regions to learn from
nations: Problems and challenges. Tourism Management, 20(2),
each other and adapt to demand requirements. Innova-
tive marketing led by research and using new technolo-
Buhalis, D. (1999b). Relationships in the distribution channel of
gies, will be the only way to manage and market
tourism: Con#icts between hoteliers and tour operators in the
competitive destinations in the future for the bene
Mediterranean region. Journal of International Hospitality, Leisure
and Tourism Administration, 2(2), forthcoming.
their stakeholders.
Buhalis, D., & Cooper, C. (1998). Competition or co-operation: The
needs of small and medium sized tourism enterprises at a destina-tion level. In E. Laws, B. Faulkner, & G. Moscardo, Embracing andmanaging change in Tourism. London: Routledge.
Buhalis, D., & Fletcher, J. (1995). Environmental impacts on tourism
destinations: An economic analysis. In H. Coccosis, & P. Nijkamp,
Agarwal, S. (1997). The resort cycle and seaside tourism: An
Sustainable tourism development (pp. 3}24). England: Avebury.
assessment of its applicability and validity. Tourism Management,
Burns, P. (1999). Paradoxes in planning: Tourism elitism or brutalism?.
Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 329}348.
Ahmed, Z. U., & Krohn, F. B. (1990). Reversing the United States
Butler, R. (1980). The concept of a tourism area cycle of evolution:
declining competitiveness in the marketing of international tourism:
Implications for resources. Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5}12.
A perspective on future policy. Journal of Travel Research, 29(2),
Bywater, M. (1992). The European tour operator industry. London: Eco-
nomist Intelligence Unit.
Archer, B. (1996). Sustainable tourism * Do economists really care?.
Bywater, M. (1997). The European agency industry. London: Travel and
Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(3 & 4), 217}222.
Athiyaman, A. (1997). Knowledge development in tourism: Tourism
Calantone, R. J., & Mazanec, J. A. (1991). Marketing management and
demand research. Tourism Management, 18(4), 221}228.
tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(1), 101}119.
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
Chacko, H. E. (1997). Positioning a tourism destination to gain a com-
Goeldner, C. R., Ritchie, J. R. B., & MacIntosh, R. W. (2000). ¹ourism:
petitive edge. Asia Pacixc Journal of Tourism Research, 1(2), 69}75.
Principles, practices, philasophies. New York: Wiley.
Chon, K. S. (1991). Tourism destination image modi"cation process:
Goodall (1988). How tourists choose their holidays: An analytical
Marketing implications. Tourism Management, 12(1), 68}72.
framework. In Goodall, & Ashworth, Marketing in the tourism
Chon, K. S. (1992). Self-image/destination image congruity. Annals of
industry: The promotion of destination regions. London: Groom
Tourism Research, 19(2), 360}363.
Choy, D. J. L. (1992). Life cycle models for Paci"c island destinations.
Goodall (1991). Understanding holiday choice. In C. Cooper, Progress
Journal of Travel Research, 30(3), 26}31.
in tourism, recreation and hospitality management, vol. 3 (pp. 58}77).
Conlin, M., & Baum, T. (Eds). (1995). Island tourism: Management,
London: Belhaven.
principles and practice. London: Wiley.
Goodall, B., & Ashworth, G. (Eds.). (1988). Marketing in the tourism
Cooper, C. P. (1989). Tourist product life cycle. In S. F. Witt, &
industry: The promotion of destination regions, London: Groom
L. Moutinho, Tourism marketing and management handbook (pp.
577}580). London: Prentice Hall.
Gunn, C. (1994). Tourism Planning (3rd ed.). London: Taylor and
Cooper, C. (1992). The life cycle concept and tourism. In P. Johnson,
& B. Thomas, Choice and demand in tourism (pp. 145}160). London,
Hall, C. M. (2000). ¹ourism Planning: Policies, processes, relationships.
UK: Mansell.
UK: Prentice Hall.
Cooper, C. (1994). Tourism product life cycle. In A. Seaton, et al.,
Hawes, D. K., Taylor, D. T., & Hampe, G. D. (1991). Destination
Tourism: The state of the art (pp. 340}346). Chichester: Wiley.
marketing by state. Journal of Travel Research, 30(1), 11}17.
Cooper, C., & Buhalis, D. (1992). Strategic management and marketing
Haywood, K. M. (1986). Can the tourist-area life cycle be made opera-
issues for SMTEs: A case study of the Greek Aegean Islands. In
tional?. Tourism Management, 7(3), 154}167.
R. Teare, et al., Projects in hospitality organisations. London: Cassell.
Heath, E., & Wall, G. (1992). Marketing tourism destinations: A strategic
Cooper, C., & Jackson, S. (1989). Destination life cycle. The Isle of Man
planning approach. New York: Wiley.
case study. Annals of Tourism Research, 16(3), 377}398.
Horner, S., & Swarbrooke, J. (1996). Marketing tourism, hospitality and
Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Gilbert, D., Shepherd, R., & Wanhill, S. (ed.).
leisure in Europe. London: Thomson Business Press.
(1998). Tourism: Principles and practices, (2nd ed.). England: Ad-
Hu, Y. Z., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1993). Measuring destination attractive-
ness: A contextual approach. Journal of Travel Research, 32(2),
Crouch, G. I. (1994). Promotion and demand in international tourism.
Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 3(3), 109}125.
Hughes, G. (1995). Authenticity in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research,
Davidson, R. (1994). Business travel. London: Pitman.
Davidson, R., & Maitland, R. (1997). Tourism destinations. London:
Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism planning: An integrated and sustainable
Hodder & Stoughton.
approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Douglas, N. (1997). Applying the life cycle model to Melanesia. Annals
Inskeep, E. (1994). National and regional tourism planning. London:
of Tourism Research, 24(1), 1}22.
Edwards, A. (1993). Price competitiveness of holiday destinations: Costs
Jamal, T., & Getz, D. (1996). Does strategic planning pay? Lessons
for European travellers. Research Report. London: Economist Intel-
for destinations from corporate planning experience. Progress in
ligence Unit.
Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(1), 59}78.
Evans, M. R., Fox, J. B., & Johnson, R. B. (1995). Identifying competi-
Jenner, P., & Smith, C. (1993). Tourism in the Mediterranean. London:
tive strategies for successful tourism destination development. Jour-
Economist Intelligence Unit.
nal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 3(1), 37}45.
Johnston, B. R., & Edwards, T. (1994). The commodi"cation of moun-
Faulkner, B. (1997). A model for the evaluation of national tourism
taineering. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(3), 459}478.
destination marketing programs. Journal of Travel Research, 35(3),
Kent, P. (1991). Understanding holiday choices. In Sinclair, & M.
Stabler, The tourism industry: An international analysis (pp. 165}185).
Fayos-Sola, E. (1992). A strategic outlook for regional tourism policy:
Oxford: CAB International.
The white paper on Valencian tourism. Tourism Management, 13(1),
Khan, S. A. (1994). Tourism and a European strategy for the alpine
environment. In E. Cater, & G. Lowman, Ecotourism: A sustainable
Fayos-Sola, E. (1996). Tourism policy: A midsummer night's dream?.
option? (pp. 103}110). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Tourism Management, 17(6), 405}412.
Kotler, P., Bowen, J., & Makens, J. (1996). Marketing for hospitality and
Formica, S., & Uysal, M. (1996). The revitalization of Italy as a tourist
tourism. UK: Prentice-Hall.
destination. Tourism Management, 17(5), 323}331.
Laarman, J. G., & Gregersen, H. M. (1996). Pricing policy in nature-
Garrod, G., & Willis, K. G. (1992). The amenity value of woodland in
based tourism. Tourism Management, 17(4), 247}254.
Great Britain: A comparison of economic estimates. Environmental
Law, C. (1993). Urban tourism: Attracting visitors to large cities. London:
and Resource Economics, 2(4), 415}434.
Gayle, D., & Goodrich, J. (1993). Tourism marketing and management in
Law, C. (Ed.). (1996). Tourism in major cities, London: Thomson Busi-
the Caribbean. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Getz, D. (1992). Tourism planning and destination life cycle. Annals of
Leiper, N. (1995). Tourism Management. Melbourne: RMIT Press.
Tourism Research, 19(4), 752}770.
Lockhart, D., & Drakakis-Smith, D. (Eds.). (1997). Island tourism:
Gilbert, D. (1984). The need for countries to diwerentiate their tourist
Trends and prospects. London: Pinter.
product and how to do so. Seminar papers: Tourism managing for
Mansfeld, Y. (1995). The value stretcha model and its implementation
results. University of Surrey, Guildford.
in detecting tourists' class-di!erentiated destination choice. Journal
Gilbert, D. (1990). Strategic marketing planning for national tourism.
of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 4(3), 71}92.
The Tourist Review, 1, 18}27.
March, R. (1994). Tourism marketing myopia. Tourism Management,
Gilbert, D. (1991). An examination of the consumer decision process
relate to tourism. In C. Cooper, Progress in tourism, recreation and
Mayo, E., & Jarvis, L. (1981). The psychology of leisure travel. Boston:
hospitality management, vol. 3. London: Belhaven.
CBI Publishing.
Gilbert, D. (1993). Consumer behaviour and tourism demand. In C.
Mazanec, J. (1989). Consumer behaviour in tourism. In S. Witt, &
Cooper, J. Fletcher, D. Gilbert, & S. Wanhill, Tourism: Principles
L. Moutinho, Tourism marketing and management handbook (pp.
and practice (pp. 20}31). London: Pitman Publishing.
69}73). London: Practice-Hall.
D. Buhalis / Tourism Management 21 (2000) 97} 116
Mazanec, J. (ed.) (1997). International city tourism: Analysis and strategy.
Ritchie, B., & Crouch, G. (1993). Competitiveness in international
London: Pinter.
tourism: A framework for understanding and analysis. Annual Con-
Mazanec, J., & Zins, A. (1994). Tourist behaviour and the new Euro-
gress of the International Association of Scienti"c Experts in
pean life style typology. In W. Theobold, Global Tourism: The next
Tourism, Baliloche, Argentina.
decade (pp. 199}216). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Ryan, C. (1991a). Recreational tourism: A social science perspective,
McKercher, B. (1995). The destination-market matrix: A tourism mar-
London: Routledge.
ket portfolio analysis model. Journal of Travel and Tourism Market-
Ryan, C. (1991b). Tourism and marketing-A symbiotic relationship.
ing, 4(2), 23}40.
Tourism Management, 12(2), 101}111.
McWilliams, E. G., & Crompton, J. L. (1997). An expanded framework
Ryan, C. (1997). The tourist experience: A new introduction. London:
for measuring the e!ectiveness of destination advertising. Tourism
Management, 18(3), 127}137.
Sautter, E. T., & Leisen, B. (1999). Managing stakeholders: A tourism
Meidan, A. (1995). Pricing. In S. F. Witt, & L. Moutinho, Tourism
planning model. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 312}328.
marketing and management handbook, Student Edition, pp. 367}375.
Schoenbachler, D. D., Benedetto, C. A. di, Gordon, G. L., & Kaminski,
P. F. (1995). Destination advertising: Assessing e!ectiveness with the
Middleton, V. (1992). Marketing in travel and tourism (2nd ed.). London:
split-run technique. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 4(2),
Middleton, V., & Hawkins, R. (1998). Sustainable tourism: A marketing
Seaton, A. (1997). Destination marketing. In A. Seaton, & M. Bennett,
Marketing tourism products: Concepts, issues, cases. London: Thom-
Millington, K., & Cleverdon, R., (1999). National Tourist O$ces: Their
son Business Press.
budget and performance, Insights, September, pp. B1}19.
Sharpley, R., & Sharpley, J. (1997). Rural tourism. London: Thomson
Morgan, N., & Pritchard, A. (1998). Tourism promotion and power:
Business Press.
Creating images, creating identities. Chichester: Wiley.
Shaw, G., & Williams, A. (Eds.). (1997). The rise and fall of British Coastal
Morgan, M. (1995). Homogeneous products: The future of established
resorts: Cultural and economic perspectives, London: Mansell.
resorts. In W. F. Theobald, Global tourism: The next decade. Oxford:
Silver, I. (1993). Marketing authenticity in Third World countries.
Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 302}318.
Moutinho, L. (1987). Consumer behaviour in tourism. European Jour-
Sirakaya, E., McLellan, R. W., & Uysal, M. (1996). Modeling vacation
nal of Marketing, 21(10), 1}44.
destination decisions: A behavioral approach. Journal of Travel and
Murphy, P. E., & Pritchard, M. (1997). Destination price-value percep-
Tourism Marketing, 5(1/2), 57}75.
tions: An examination of origin and seasonal in#uences. Journal of
So"eld, T. H. B. (1991). Sustainable ethnic tourism in the South Paci"c:
Travel Research, 35(3), 16}22.
Some principles. Journal of Tourism Studies, 2(1), 56}72.
O'Brien, K. (1996). The West European leisure travel market: Forecasts
Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (1999). Consumer behaviour in tourism.
for opportunities into the next century. Financial Times Newsletters
and Management Reports, London.
Thomas, J. (1992). Tourism and the environment: An exploration of the
O'Brien, K. (1998). The European business travel market. Travel and
willingness to pay of the average visitor. Conference proceedings
Tourism Analyst, 4, 37}54.
Tourism in Europe: The 1992 conference, 8}10 July 1992, Durham,
Oppermann, M. (1996). Rural tourism in southern Germany. Annals of
Tourism Research, 23(1), 86}102.
Tooman, L. A. (1997). Applications of the life-cycle model in tourism.
Page, S. (1994). Urban Tourism. London: Routledge.
Annals of Tourism Research, 24(1), 214}234.
Page, S., & Getz, D. (Eds). (1997). The business of rural tourism: Interna-
Towner, B., & Newton, M. (Ed.). (1996). Tourism in Spain: Critical
tional perspectives, London: Thomson Business Press.
issues. Oxford: Cab.
Palmer, A., & Bejou, D. (1995). Tourism destination marketing allian-
Tribe, J. (1997). Corporate strategy for tourism. London: International
ces. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(3), 616}629.
Thomson Business Press.
Pearce, D. (1989). Tourist development. Essex, UK: Longman.
Vlitos-Rowe (1994). International business travel: A changing proxle.
Pearce, D. G. (1997). Competitive destination analysis in Southeast
London: Economist Intelligence Unit.
Asia. Journal of Travel Research, 35(4), 16}24.
Weiermair, K. (1993). Innovation and innovatory behaviour in the
Pigram, J. (1996). Best practice environmental management and the
tourist industry: Growth strategies for accommodation establish-
tourism industry. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(3
ments in alpine regions. Revue de Tourisme, 48(1), 14}22.
& 4), 261}271.
Wicks, B. E., & Schuett, M. A. (1991). Examining the role of tourism
Poon, A. (1989). Competitive strategies for new tourism. In C. Cooper,
promotion through the use of brochures. Tourism Management,
Progress in tourism recreation and hospitality management, vol. 1 (pp.
91}102). London: Belhaven Press.
Wicks, B. E., & Schuett, M. A. (1993). Using travel brochures to target
Poon, A. (1993). Tourism, technology and competitive strategies. Oxford:
frequent travellers and &big-spenders'. Journal of Travel and Tourism
CAB International.
Marketing, 2(2/3), 77}90.
Porter, M. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analysing indus-
Woodside, A. G. (1990). Measuring advertising e!ectiveness in destina-
tries and competitors. New York: Free Press.
tion marketing strategies. Journal of Travel Research, 29(2), 3}8.
Porter, M. (1985). Competitive advantage. New York: Free Press.
Woodside, A., & Lysonski, S. (1989). A general model of traveler
Ritchie (1996). Beacons of light in an expanding universe: An
destination choice. Journal of Travel Research, 27(4), 8}14.
Yuksel, F., Bramwell, B., & Yuksel, A. (1999). Stakeholder interviews
marketing research. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 5(4),
and tourism planning at Pamukkale, Turkey. Tourism Management,
Source: http://www.esgt.ipt.pt/download/disciplina/2831__BuhalisDestinationMarketing.pdf
Modalités particulières d'administration des médicaments par voie orale Juillet 2014 Page 1 sur 64 Sommaire Domaine d'application Méthodologie de travail Matériel existant pour écraser les comprimés Présentation de la liste des formes orales disponibles Groupe de travail et relecteurs
Presentación de los actos ¡Amable público lector! En esta publicación electrónica, dedi- cada a comentar los espectáculos y otras actividades complementarias del XXIII Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro (FIT) de Cádiz 2008, GESTOS les ofrece la oportunidad de aproximarse a esa espectacular fiesta del arte, del intelecto y de los sentidos desde el punto de vista de