MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
1. INTRODUCTION
case, superior) product, it may also take the form of a new design, service or business process (Mumford 2000).
There is general consensus that high profit companies of our times rely heavily on innovation to maintain their efficiency and
Creativity, which we define as the combination of idea
survivability, with innovation being defined as the process from
generation and idea validation (see section 2.2), is essential to
an idea to the introduction of a novelty into the market
the innovation process. Again and again, novel ideas need to be
(Mumford 2000, Basadur 2004). Novelty and usefulness are in
incorporated into the innovation process (figure 1). Creativity is
fact the two characteristic parameters to differentiate true
even necessary before the actual innovation process can begin,
innovations from me-too products and purely artistic
and can thus be considered as "pre-innovation": Although the
achievements (Ford 1992, as cited in Scott 1995). Although an
first idea itself might be elusive, it is prerequisite for scientific,
innovation is often a technologically different (and, in the best
technological or procedural innovation.
Figure 1: The relationship of innovation and creativity
Shalley & Gilson (2004) state that "most managers would agree
a common cognitive frame (single ideas → general theory, e.g.
that there is room, in almost every job, for employees to be more
general systems theory)
creative." Although we generally agree with this view, creativity seems to be more important in some work domains than in
All of these types of creative acts are achievements in their own
others. While creativity is a sine qua non in advertising and
right. Their diversity cautions against a definition of scientific
marketing, it might be less desirable in accounting, although a
creativity that is too narrow to reflect this range. Another danger
novel accounting process can well be a valuable innovation.
in the study of creativity is to focus only on exceptional persons
Most scientific and technological innovation is expected to
and events (like the examples in the above list). Although the
originate from research and development (R&D) organisations
study of exceptional persons or events might cast an interesting
or departments. As creativity is the source of innovation, it can
light on creativity in general (Holm-Hadulla 2007), it appears to
well be claimed that creativity is essential for successful R&D
be more useful to concentrate on average people. We propose
and that creativity in R&D thus deserves special attention.
that in normal circumstances the development of creativity in
According to Heinze (2007) there are five types of scientific
ordinary employees is a more feasible way of inducing idea
generation and validation than hiring or nurturing a genius, as by definition a genius is the great exception. Moreover, there is
1. Formulation of a new idea (or of a set of new ideas) that
another problem in the study of singular "geniuses", especially
opens up a new cognitive frame or brings theoretical claims to a
in the field of basic sciences. There is little doubt that chance
new level of sophistication (basic assumptions → theory, e.g.
has played a major role in many breakthrough discoveries.
Einstein‟s theory of specific relativity)
Historic examples are the discovery of the vulcanization of rubber by Charles Goodyear (which is reported to have happened the first time on a dirty lab floor in 1839), radioactive
2. Discovery of a new empirical phenomenon that stimulates
radiation by Henri Becquerel (while studying a faulty theory of
new theorizing (observation → theory, e.g. Darwin‟s theory of
phosphorescence in 1896), and Penicillin by Alexander Fleming
(working with fungus-contaminated Petri dishes in 1928). The creative act of these researchers was to recognise the importance
3. Development of a new methodology, by means of which
of unexpected findings, and what made them succeed was their
theoretical problems can be empirically tested (theory →
determination to find the reason why something had gone
method, e.g. Spearman‟s development of factor analysis to test
wrong. On the other hand, if these "accidents" had happened in
his theory on mental abilities)
other laboratories, we would probably study other "scientific geniuses" nowadays (although Simonton (2004) remarks that some scientists "appear to be consistently more lucky than
4. Invention of a novel instrument that opens up new search
others", implying a special ability to exploit chance). The risk of
perspectives and research domains (technique → new
studying champions that were "just lucky", and ignoring
possibilities, e.g. scanning tunnelling microscopy which made
brilliant, but less fortunate scientists is reduced when looking at
nanotechnology possible)
larger groups of more average people. This paper summarises the literature in the field of work place creativity, with special
5. New synthesis of formerly dispersed ideas into general
attention given to the R&D environment. Though our aim was to
theoretical laws enabling analyses of diverse phenomena within
focus on recent research, some older papers have been considered if they have proven to be the foundation of further
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
fruitful work. As for structure, we will first outline some
are idea generation and idea validation. While idea generation
theoretical concepts of creativity, then analyse motivation -
requires divergent thinking skills to produce as many and as
maybe the most important factor for individual creativity- ,
diverse ideas as possible, in idea validation convergent thinking
move on to creativity on team or work group level, and finally
skills are necessary to decide which are the most promising
point out measures to be taken on institutional level to create an
ideas. A similar process, "ideation-evaluation", has been
environment favourable to the generation and validation of new
described to be essential to the three stages of the problem
solving process (problem finding, problem solving, solution implementation) by Basadur, Graen & Green (1982). In artistic settings, the first step is a value in itself and validation is not that
2. MODELS OF CREATIVITY
essential, as loose ends might even be desirable in a work of art. In commercial or scientific settings, validation is absolutely
The theoretical models of creativity currently discussed in
necessary as only very few ideas can be taken to realisation.
literature can be divided into two groups: componential theories
Both stages can either be performed by one individual or as a
that examine which human characteristics and abilities are
necessary to perform creative acts, and sequential theories that concentrate on the creative process. As both kinds of reasoning
2.3. The "Search for Ideas in Associative Memory" (SIAM)
lead to interesting insights, examples of both are discussed
below and referred to throughout this paper. Generally speaking, componential theories give advice on how to design long-term processes conducive to creativity, while sequential theories are
In the theoretical section of their paper, Nijstad & Stroebe
more useful when considering short-term action or interaction.
(2006) describe a creativity model called Search for Ideas in Associative Memory (SIAM). They claim that two distinct types of memory are active in the creative process, i.e. a large, static
2.1. The "Componential Theory of Individual Creativity"
network of associative images (Long-term Memory (LTM), Note: In this context, "images" are general intellectual objects
According to the Componential Theory of Individual Creativity
with no necessity of visual or spatial components) and a small,
(Amabile 1997), the three essential components of individual
dynamic Working Memory (WM) (closely associated with
creativity are expertise, creative-thinking skill and intrinsic task
consciousness). Based on this assumption the generation of an
motivation. Expertise comprises factual knowledge, technical
idea is described as to proceed in several steps (figure 2):
proficiency and a special talent in the target work domain. While knowledge and proficiency can be improved over time, talent is
Based on the given task, a search cue is generated in
more or less a given thing rooted in individual personality.
the WM. This takes some conscious effort.
Creative-thinking skill is that "something extra" found in
The search cue activates an image in the LTM. The
creative people. There is a consensus that creative thinking can
choice of which image is activated is not
be learned, at least to some degree. Basadur (2004) emphasises
that idea generation should be separated from idea validation,
If no image can be activated or if the activated image
and claims that this deferral of judgment can be trained. A "master
has already been activated previously in the process,
-apprentice relationship" is generally considered to be
this is considered a "failure", and a new image has to
most effective for the teaching of creative-thinking skills (e.g.
be activated. If the number of failures exceeds a
Weilerstein 2003). Motivation determines what a person actually
certain limit, the whole process is terminated.
will do. As motivation is the component that can be influenced
(negative feedback loop 1 → "running out of ideas")
most directly by environmental factors, it will receive special
If the image activated in step 2 is "new", the
consideration in section 3.
association between this image and the original problem is strengthened.
2.2. Sequential models
Next, an idea is created from the image, either by combination of different parts of the image, or the image and the cue, or the image and previously
There are several models that describe the creative process in a
generated ideas. This is, again, a probabilistic
sequential way. According to Wallas (1926) the four stages in
the development of an idea are: preparation, incubation,
If no idea can be generated or if the generated idea
illumination, and verification. Preparation comprises both
has already been generated previously in the process,
personal preparation (knowledge and proficiency) and the
this is considered a "failure", and a new idea has to
investigation of the problem in all directions. Incubation is a
be generated. If the number of failures exceeds a
period in which the problem is banned from conscious thought,
certain limit, a new image has to be activated.
and dealt with in an unconscious way. Illumination is the appearance of the "happy idea". This can be either instantaneous
(negative feedback loop 2 → "image depleted", search cue may be modified by considering new
or a slower process. These two, somewhat mystic, stages
mentioned last can hardly be influenced from the outside.
If the idea generated in step 5 is "new", the
Verification, finally, is the testing of the validity (novelty and
associations between this idea and the image and
usefulness) of the idea, either by the creator or different persons
between the idea and the original problem are
(cited from Scott 1995 and Holm-Hadulla 2007). In contrast to
this rather abstract four-stage model, we describe the creative act
Next, the idea is stored in the WM, and, if no
as being composed of only two stages, both of which can be
disturbance arises, expressed.
influenced on individual and institutional level. The two stages
A new idea is generated → step 5
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
Figure 2: The "Search for Ideas in Associative Memory" (SIAM) model (adapted from Nijstad & Stroebe (2006))
The Search for Ideas in Associative Memory (Nijstad 2006)
3. MOTIVATION
matches well with the Componential Theory of Individual Creativity (Amabile 1997): Expertise can be considered a
Although most of the relevant publications emphasise that
measure of how well developed (density and ontological
innovation is a group process, Redmond (1993) underlines the
interconnectedness) the LTM is, creative-thinking skill can be
fact that "it should, however, be recognised that the individual is
seen as proficiency in cue generation and activation of images,
the ultimate source of any idea or novel problem solution".
and motivation as tolerance to failures and thus a measure on
Although this original idea will be modified, supplemented or
how long the ideation process is kept active.
excluded by a team, idea generation happens inside the individual. On the other hand, idea processing can only happen
2.4. SIAM and production blocking
once the idea is expressed and communicated to the outside environment. As pointed out above, the Componential Theory of Individual Creativity (Amabile 1997) insists on (intrinsic)
According to Nijstad & Stroebe (2006), production blocking, a
motivation as a key component of individual creativity. The link
concept important in the explanation of effects observed in
between motivation and creativity is well established and
brainstorming (see section 4.3), may occur at two stages of the
generally accepted. Yet, there are two questions related to it that
process. In both cases it is caused by the limited resources of the
have not been answered exhaustively. The first one has received
WM. There is a high chance of a validated idea being simply
some attention, and results from research on it will be discussed
forgotten if mental work has to be performed between storing
further on: Does it make a difference if individuals are
the idea in the WM (step 8a) and expressing the idea (step 8b).
motivated by themselves (intrinsic motivation), in contrast to
In a group brainstorming setting, this mental work consists of
being motivated by prospects of receiving rewards for being
monitoring the group proceedings for a possibility to express one‟s idea. The chance of forgetting an idea rises with waiting
creative from outside (extrinsic motivation)? The second question has not been raised in a scientific context, to the best of
time, and thus with group size, making large brainstorming
our knowledge: Does motivation really influence the production
groups less effective. Apart from that, this mental work might
or just the expression of new ideas? In other words, do poorly
also interfere with the demanding process of activating a new
motivated individuals have new ideas at the same rate as highly
image in the LTM (step 2). The false impression that group
motivated ones, and do they just not tell anybody?
brainstorming is more effective than individual brainstorming might be caused by these interruptions (at least in part, as other processes like social comparison play a part, too): In individual
3.1. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
brainstorming, both more images are activated, and activated images are used more thoroughly, as fewer interruptions occur. That leads to a higher number of "failures", which again are
Arthur Schawlow, winner of the noble prize in physics 1981, was once asked what, in his opinion, made the difference
experienced as negative, and lead to the (erroneous) feeling of
between highly creative and less creative scientists. He replied:
"The labor of love aspect is important. The most successful scientists often are not the most talented. But they are the ones
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
who are impelled by curiosity. They‟ve got to know what the
influenced both by cognitive style and work complexity.
answer is" (cited by Amabile 1997). This is a fair description of
Cognitive style is defined by the Adaption-Innovation Theory
intrinsic motivation. Another example is given by Akio Morita
(Kirton 1994), in which "adaptors" tend to operate within given
(1986), the founder of Sony: "I believe people work for
paradigms and procedures, while "innovators" tend to develop
satisfaction. I believe it is a big mistake to think that money is
problem solutions that are qualitatively different from previous
the only way to compensate a person for his work. People need
ones. After evaluating interviews with 117 employees of two
money, but they also want to be happy in their work and proud
manufacturing companies and correlating the results with
of it." This sense of pride (which seems to be closely associated
creativity as perceived by immediate superiors, Baer et al.
with the sense of ownership mentioned in other studies) is
(2003) were able to show a complex pattern between cognitive
another component of intrinsic motivation. It seems to reflect a
style, job complexity, and the effect of rewards on creativity
genuine human longing to be creative and to be identified with
(figure 3). They found that employees with simple jobs showed
the creative act or outcome. While there is little doubt that
a strong response to extrinsic rewards: While the creativity of
intrinsic motivation is typical of highly creative individuals, the
innovators was lowered, adaptors showed a steep rise in
question if and why this type of motivation could be more
creativity, reversing the original order of innovators being more
conducive to creativity than motivation induced by the prospect
creative than adaptors. Their main finding in respect to complex
of some kind of reward is still discussed vividly: Several authors
jobs, which are predominant in R&D environments, was that
claim that incentives and other measures that let employees
while innovators are hardly affected by the prospect of rewards,
participate in commercial success, will motivate creativity (e.g.
the creativity of adaptors is considerably lowered. This was
Springer 1992), while others observe that creativity is dwarfed if
explained by pointing out that adaptors in complex jobs have
rewards are promised (e.g. Amabile 1996). To make things even
weaker intrinsic motivation, which is further shaken if extrinsic
more complicated, a third kind of motivation, by feelings of
reward is offered, as this makes them feel even more
obligation, has been proposed (Cooper 2006). Baer et al. (2003)
instrumental for making profit and less valued as individuals.
aimed at resolving the confusion caused by these inconsistent
We are not totally convinced that this is the only possible
findings on the effects of rewards on creativity. They put
explanation of these interesting findings.
forward the idea that the effect of rewards on creativity is
Figure 3: The relationship between creativity and rewards (adapted from Baer et al. (2003)
According to Mumford (2000) a combination of extrinsic and
3.2. Mission
intrinsic rewards might be the most effective way of boosting creativity: "Because creative work is linked to curiosity and
A less individualistic approach towards improving motivation is
independence, providing time to pursue topics of personal
the provision of a "mission". The perception of contributing a
professional interest, or reducing administrative burdens, may
unique part to the achievement of a worthy goal (like "curing
prove useful reward strategies particularly when accompanied
cancer" or "flying to the moon") has been identified as a major
by pay incentives, bonuses, and patent rights." Rewards and
element in most of the creative events examined by Heinze
incentives have an additional benefit: They indicate to
(2007). According to Akio Morita (1986), it is one of the prime
employees what kind of performance is desired by the
tasks of management to find and communicate these overall
management and are thus valuable means of communicating
targets: "Management of an industrial company must be giving
corporate values and goals to individual employees (Wong
targets to the engineers constantly; that may be the most
2003). As such, they support the immediate superior‟s function
important job management has in dealing with its engineers."
of conveying these values and goals (see section 4.2). In contrast
The same is surely true for scientists. Some research has been
to this, Heinze (2007) observed that many research institutions
conducted on how such overall goals or missions can be
run reward schemes that work in a detrimental way: "Institutional arrangements fo
generated. In a model suggested by Strange & Mumford (2005),
r rewarding outstanding scientists
the analysis of idealized goals and their causes is prerequisite for
include increasing the size of their research group, putting them
the formation of a so-called prescriptive mental model (PMM),
in charge of a research institute, or expecting them to act as a
which is a set of ideas on how things should be. This PMM is
national expert on various committees. These rewards have the
then refined to a "vision" that can be communicated, and may
perverse effect of preventing these scientists from doing what they are best at: research and inspiring colleagues." These
thus inspire others to act in a way favourable to reaching the state imagined in the PMM. A vision in this sense can be
observations urgently call for a critical evaluation of incentive
distinguished from a plan, as it tells people where to go but does
systems especially in highly innovative areas like R&D where
not necessarily tell them how to get there. Interestingly, Strange
the reward schemes described by Heinze are common and
& Mumford (2005) have found that experience plays a major
unquestioned practise.
role in creating such mental models. They claim that having
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
people with a wide range of experience and a "colourful"
that small groups are more apt to perform creative tasks. The
background in the team will benefit the creation of "vision" and
mechanism behind the effects blocking creativity in large groups
thus contribute indirectly, but very effectively to enhancing
is quite complex. One aspect is losing track of "who is doing
what", which in turn will lead to a reduced spread of novel ideas. Large groups are also less conducive to "master-apprentice relationships", which are considered exceptionally
3.3. Contest
well suited for passing on creative abilities from senior to junior members of staff (Weilerstein, Ruiz, Gorman 2003). This kind
Several highly creative scientists interviewed by Heinze (2007)
of relationship is mutually beneficial, as senior staff is likely to
claimed that friendly competition between different groups of
get fresh ideas from newer members of the team: "The
the same organisation had been important as a driving factor
wellsprings of research creativity reside in junior scientists and
towards creative achievements. Priority races between groups of
are waiting to be unleashed" (Heinze 2007). Furthermore,
different organisations might also be strong motivators. These
collaborative peer review, most often by a more senior scientist,
priority races can take the form of friendly competition with a
is considered the best method to direct creative work, when
high level of communication or of fierce rivalry with no mutual
requisite expertise and motivation are present (Mumford 2000).
communication at all, while anything in between is also
In larger groups, communication needs to be formalised and thus
possible. Motivation can also be improved on inter-company or
requires complex and time-consuming meeting procedures in
even international level: A study conducted under the auspices
contrast to low-level chats typical of smaller teams. In these less
of the US National Academy of Engineering (1999) concluded
formal chats new ideas arise at a considerably higher rate.
that inducement prize contests have led to innovations in
Regular, large meetings with a strict hierarchical order can even
engineering (especially aeronautic engineering) in a highly
be considered as a means of suppressing creativity since they
effective way. This positive outcome is attributed to three
have the well-documented effect of weakening innovative ideas
effects: (i) the ability to attract a broad spectrum of ideas and
by voicing all kinds of concerns and limitations. They will thus
participants, (ii) the potential to leverage financial resources
level down novel ideas to a streamlined generally accepted
from sponsors, and (iii) the capacity to educate, inspire and
consensus. Additional scarceness of administrative staff will add
mobilise the public (as cited in Young 2007). Recent examples
to the low effectiveness of these meetings, as preparation will be
of this kind of contests are the Ansari X-Prize for the first non-
poor which makes the outcome even more erratic. As a practical
government organisation to launch a reusable manned spacecraft
solution to the dilemma that small groups are more conducive to
into space twice within two weeks (won on October 4, 2004 by
creativity, but lack the knowledge and ability base of larger
Scaled Composites and their "SpaceShipOne") and the DARPA
groups, Heinze (2007) suggests to organize research in small
Urban Challenge 2007 for an autonomous vehicle crossing an
teams, but to create an organisational environment that
urban environment (won on November 3, 2007 by Tartan
facilitates informal interaction of these small teams (see section
Racing‟s vehicle "Boss").
5.3). These interactions are considered to be especially fruitful if groups have highly complementary knowledge and expertise, e.g. if theoretically focused groups interact with more
4. WORK GROUP CREATIVITY
experimentally oriented ones. In such a context, the small "core teams" can be considered as Communities of Practice (CoP),
In remarkable contrast to the rapid technological progress in the
held together by a shared knowledge base and a homogeneous
last decades, the process by which technological innovation is
modus operandi (set of methods and techniques), while the
performed has remained fairly un-changed over the years: R&D
whole organisation can be considered a Community of Interest
is mainly carried out by project groups that generate or import
(CoI), held together by a common goal. Smaller CoIs, made up
scientific and technological information, transform it into novel
of members of different CoPs, can be formed as the necessity
ideas, products, or processes, and then export these innovations
arises. They are less stable than the core teams and might
to other units of the organisation (Elkins & Keller 2003). So,
disband after a particular problem has been solved, be it after
while creativity is sometimes still associated with the "lone
five minutes or several years. The question whether constant or
genius" working in a secluded laboratory, most creative work
changing teams are more conducive to creativity has caused
takes place in organisational settings and is usually conducted in
some debate among scientists. Nemeth & Ormiston (2007) claim
teams nowadays (Redmond 1993). Going one step beyond,
that stable group membership might well increase morale,
Fischer et al. (2005) claim that most intellectual processes,
performance and felt creativity, while measurable creativity
including creativity, are in fact social processes. According to
flourishes in a less comfortable environment with changing
them, "the power of the unaided individual mind is highly
group members. People exposed to dissent, which stable groups
overrated" and "most scientific and artistic innovations emerge
appear to actively discourage, take account of more information
from joint thinking, passionate conversations and shared
on all sides of the issue, utilise multiple strategies, have
struggles among different people, emphasizing the importance
improved performance and make better decisions (Gruenfeld,
of the social dimension of creativity." This emphasis on group
1995; Van Dyne & Saavedra, 1996, both as cited in Nemeth
work is based on the assumption that idea generation is best
2007). As one conclusion Nemeth & Ormiston (2007) state that
performed in groups and that interaction with others fosters
perceived creativity may have little to do with actual creativity.
creativity (Vester 1978). Yet, some researchers challenge this
They suspect that people often confuse friendliness and comfort
view and assert that contrary to popular belief, group interaction
with creativity. The discrepancy between felt and measurable
inhibits the ideation process (e.g. Nijstad 2006). In the light of
creativity shows parallels to the effects of group brainstorming
controversies like this, it seems to be prudent to examine group
(as described in section 4.3), and indicates that self-assessment
interaction processes, both inside the group (including
of creativity is always precarious. This is supported by Scott
interaction with group leaders), and between groups and their
(1995) who advises to set generous but strict deadlines to
surroundings, in order to gain insight into creative processes in
creative projects, as highly creative people are rarely satisfied
working environments. We will examine processes of work
with the outcome of their efforts. Nemeth & Ormiston (2007)
group creativity under various aspects: (i) size and constitution
conclude: "Managers should be cautioned against the „paradox
of the group, (ii) impact of the group leader, and (iii) creativity
of success‟ wherein they place individuals in groups on a new
task based on who previously worked well together. Rather, teaming individuals who have not previously worked together may better benefit the creative process." There is considerable
4.1. Size and constitution of the work group
evidence that introducing new members with a background different from the one already existent in a team will lead to
While large groups offer the advantage of providing a large
higher creativity. Leaders with the ability to select new group
knowledge base, especially if group members come from
members with skills complementing the ones already present are
different professions, there is a consensus among researchers
considered to obtain the most creative groups in a scientific
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
environment (Heinze 2007). These new members should share
broaden the horizon of the existing group, while still covering
some domain knowledge with present members to make
enough common ground to be able to communicate with other
effective communication possible, but they should also bring
team members. Springer (1992) recommends considering
new abilities to the group to broaden the team‟s domain
individuals with a less-than-streamlined CV when hiring for
coverage. These features can be depicted both as a fish-scale
creativity, as experience in diverse fields is a productive source
model (Fisher 2005) and as a Venn diagram (Simonton 2004)
of creative thought.
(figure 4). Both diagrams show that new members should
Figure 4: Different graphical representations of suitable knowledge within work groups (circles: knowledge domains of individuals; dashed
circles: well suited domains of new group members)
visible role models on how employees are supposed to act. In doing so, they reconcile the dichotomy between what employees would like to do and the actual work that the organisation
4.2. Influence of leader behaviour
expects them to do, without over-controlling highly skilled subordinates. Another important function of group leaders is to
The influence of leader behaviour on creativity in subordinates
connect the work group to the outside world. This means
is well documented in literature (e.g. Redmond 1993, Wong
communicating the group‟s needs, aims, and results to higher-
2003, Amabile 2004). A principal function of leaders is to set
level management and, especially in the case of academic
goals and assign tasks. In the case of highly skilled workers, like
research, to a broader scientific community. On the other hand,
scientists or engineers, a special sensitivity is necessary, as both
it is the group leader‟s function to act as an information broker
too much and too little guidance will impair creativity and
to connect the group to other interested parties that might
productivity. Personal freedom, both in choosing which
provide physical or intellectual means not available to the group
particular task to do next and how to tackle it, has been
otherwise (Heinze 2007). The perception of a leader that
identified as a major source of creativity by various authors (e.g.
supports the team in these ways, combined with respect and
Schepers & van den Berg 2007). Freedom of choice in how to
(public) recognition for individual group members, have been
conduct their research was one of the points stressed most when
shown to be among the strongest motivators for high ability
creative scientists were asked about the source of their creativity
subjects who found their task involving and meaningful
(Heinze 2007). This freedom also makes employees feel that
(Amabile 2004). The inducement of self-efficacy (e.g. by
they are indeed valued as persons, a factor that - according to
appreciating individual potential or achievement) and the
Springer (1992) - leads to well-being and thus stimulates
motivation of subordinates to apply time to problem
creativity. Goals and objectives should be defined in broad terms
identification and goal definition should also be mentioned.
to guarantee the necessary procedural freedom. Goal definition
These factors have been identified as having positive effects
should focus on creativity rather than on production, as highly
both on the quality of work output and on the willingness to take
creative work is often less productive in terms of measurable
creative risks (Redmond 1993). Finally, examples of both
output than more conventional one (Mumford 2000). Shalley &
positive and negative behaviour reveal that the positivity or
Gilson (2004) underscore this view by stressing that time is a
negativity was often conveyed more by how something was
critical resource when managing for creativity. They point out
done than by what was done. This means that leader actions that
that it is far easier and less time consuming for most employees
are conducive to creativity, like serving as a good work model,
to stick to routine methods that have proved to be efficient than
planning and setting goals appropriately, supporting the work
to spend considerable time and energy on new, creative
group within the organisation, communicating and interacting
approaches whose final outcome is rather unpredictable. After
well with the work group, valuing individual contributions,
studying the influence of leader behaviour on the quality of the
providing constructive feedback, showing confidence in the
solution of a marketing task, Redmond, Mumford & Teach
work group, and being open to new ideas, might not be enough
(1993) suggest that although "the pressures of organisational life
if they are perceived as mere management tactics by employees.
may cause leaders to seek and demand immediate problem
In the same way that interest in one‟s work is highly motivating
solutions, […] leaders would be well-advised to give
(see section 3.1), the perception of genuine interest of the leader
subordinates time to think about the problem." Leaders should
in the team and its individual members is a strong creativity
"actively take steps to encourage subordinate problem
enhancer that cannot be substituted by the mechanical
construction", e.g. by having them list multiple issues or restate
application of simple motivation techniques. The study of this
the problem. Basadur & Gelade (2006) give several examples
effect is complicated by the fact that leaders‟ behaviour patterns
where insufficient time spent on problem generation caused
can lead to positive or negative spirals in team dynamics and
substantial delay in finding viable solutions. Immediate
performance, whereby the effects of leader behaviour become
superiors are thought to have the strongest impact on employee
amplified over time. This suggests that the effects of leader
motivation. They have a central mediating role between the
behaviour on subordinate perception, emotion, and creativity are
organisation and the individual employee. It is their task to
neither static nor unidirectional, but part of a dynamic
communicate the values of the organisation and to serve as
relationship (Amabile 2004). In the end, "what seems to be
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
called for is an open, intellectually challenging environment
individual brainstorming and pooling of ideas might well be
where entrepreneurial behaviour on the part of collaborating
more efficient. While brainstorming, as the classical creativity
teams is actively encouraged" (Mumford 2000).
technique, still receives considerable research interest, other group techniques have evolved. Many of those applicable to small groups (in contrast to large group distributed design tools)
4.3. Creativity techniques
deal with the externalization of knowledge. According to Fischer et al. (2005) externalization, that is the expression of
Creativity techniques like brainstorming are generally
otherwise tacit knowledge, supports group creativity in several
considered useful tools for idea generation. Yet, Nijstad &
ways: (i) to express a vague mental concept it has to be made
Stroebe (2006) caution against their undiscriminating use in
more concrete, making thoughts and intentions more accessible
groups. They cite considerable evidence that while the general
for reflection, (ii) a physical record of mental efforts is
rules of brainstorming (emphasis on quantity, encouragement of
produced, inhibiting the forgetting of ideas and conveying a
unusual ideas, and discouragement of criticism) are well suited
higher feeling of productivity, (iii) it relieves from the difficult
for producing high quality ideas, "the prediction that
task of thinking about ones own thoughts, (iv) others can act on
brainstorming is best performed in groups has not received
and react to externalized ideas, and (v) it contributes to a
support." While felt creativity is higher if brainstorming is
common language of understanding, a way to speak about
performed in a group with n members, the measurable outcome
things. The use of computers to support externalization of
is higher if creative tasks are performed by n individuals and
knowledge is becoming increasingly common. Interestingly,
ideas are then pooled ("nominal group"). By reviewing the
many of the supporting methods involve moving physical
literature (e.g. Mullen 1991), Nijstad & Stroebe (2006) were
objects like Lego bricks. This seems to be a very "natural" way
able to show that indeed "productivity loss in brainstorming
to discuss problems in groups that helps experts from different
groups is highly significant, and of strong magnitude." As a
domains to interact in a meaningful way (Fischer 2005).
consequence, they recommend the use of this technique either for individual idea generation or in two-person groups, as the
5. THE CREATIVE INSTITUTION
loss of productivity increases rapidly with group size. Production blocking, that is stopping the transition from having an idea to expressing the idea, seems to be the main mechanism
Most group creativity takes place in the context of larger
behind this negative effect. It correlates with group size, as the
organisations, be it pure research institutions or commercial
individuals have to wait for their turn to express an idea until
enterprises with R&D as one department among others. While
other group members have expressed their thoughts (Nijstad
the size of an organisation might be less important for non-
2006). "Electronic brainstorming" (EBS) has been proposed as a
experimental work, a large, well-endowed working environment
creativity techniques that avoids this kind of forced break and
able to support an extensive array of instruments and
can lead to improved idea output, especially in large groups.
workspaces is indispensable for experimentally oriented
Although several different methods of EBS exist, most share a
scientific or engineering work. As suggested above, the ideal
user interface consisting of two windows, one to type in ideas,
organisational setting for creativity seems to be a large, highly
and another to display all ideas generated in the particular
diverse institution where small groups can easily interact and
session. DeRosa, Smith & Hantula (2007) have conducted a
profit from each other‟s views, abilities and knowledge domains.
meta-analysis to evaluate the possible benefits of EBS.
In this section, some conditions that are conducive for creativity
According to them, EBS could have several positive effects, as
in such an organisation are examined.
compared to traditional face-to-face (FTF) brainstorming:
5.1. Organisational culture
(i) production blocking should be less pronounced, as the individual group members can type in a new idea at any time,
Organisational culture has been defined as "a guideline or
without having to wait for their turn, (ii) EBS has an inherent
pattern of regular and predictable activity, formed by a series of
memory advantage, as ideas are conserved and remain visible on
coordinated actions that are put into practice before a specific
the computer screen, (iii) the anonymity possible in EBS might
problem or stimulus" (Claver 1998). In other words, it describes
facilitate the expression of dissenting and minority opinions,
the way that an organisation deals with problems, and indeed,
which again stimulates thinking in divergent ways and finding
what kind of problems it deems worthy dealing with. According
creative solutions (Nemeth 2007). As to the quantity and quality
to Cameron & Quinn (1999), the culture of organisations or their
of ideas, DeRosa, Smith & Hantula (2007) were able to place
departments can be represented as the four quadrants of a system
EBS between FTF brainstorming and nominal control groups:
formed by the two axes "introversion – extroversion" and
While outperforming traditional brainstorming groups by far,
"flexibility – control" (figure 5). Introversion represents care for
EBS groups were slightly less productive than the nominal
people and efficiency, while extroversion reflects awareness of
controls, where the individual ideas were pooled without
the organisational environment. Flexibility is linked to
interaction. As to member satisfaction, EBS outperformed both
adaptation and change, whereas control reflects orientation
other kinds of brainstorming, possibly because the results were
towards top-down management and the application of formal
so clearly visible on-screen. Taking the meta-analysis one step
rules and prescriptions. A striking feature of this system is that
further, the influence of group size was analysed separately,
though the concepts at the extremes of the axes are
with surprising results: While small nominal (non-interacting)
incompatible, neither concept is per se superior to the other. The
groups outperformed EBS groups with eight members or less,
four organisational cultures represented as quadrants are coined
larger EBS groups showed considerably better performance than
Clan (flexibility & introversion, a culture that seeks to please its
their nominal controls. As for practical considerations, DeRosa,
members), Adhocracy (flexibility & extroversion, a culture that
Smith & Hantula (2007) advise to use EBS instead of FTF if
seeks to broaden its horizon), Market (control & extroversion, a
group brainstorming is desired. They believe that the size effect
culture that seeks to get things done), and Hierarchy (control &
is only of practical importance if it is relatively easy and
introversion, a culture that seeks to ensure stability).
inexpensive to form large groups or teams. In any other setting,
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
Figure 5: Organisational cultures (adapted from Cameron & Quinn (1999))
According to Claver et al. (1998), the ideal profile for creativity
might lead to. The dilemma that novel, high potential methods
is Adhocracy: Openness for new technologies (and change in
perform worse than long established concepts and procedures
general) and the readiness to take risks, both factors these
has been addressed by Young (2007). It seems to be a general
authors identify as creativity-promoting, are part of the ideals
rule that in the beginning new methods have poorer performance
and values immanent to the Adhocracy culture. The flexibility to
than well-established procedures. On the other hand, they have
react rapidly to new developments, to incorporate new
the potential to result in higher performance, if enough effort
technology, and to address new problems and ideas as they arise,
and time are invested (figure 6). This is inherently associated
has also been found to be typical of highly creative research
with considerable risk, as it is not clear what the potential
groups (Heinze 2007). It is therefore advisable to create an
performance of the novel method is: The chances that it will
Adhocracy type environment if high creativity is desired, while
never exceed the established, by-the-book procedure are
alternative corporate cultures might be more valuable in other
considerable. In that case all the invested means and efforts were
parts of a larger organisation. Typical features of a Hierarchy are
futile. Practically, this risk can lead to the effect that "negative
well-established procedures and adherence to strict rules. They
stereotypes and immediate work demands can lead to a
are clearly detrimental to the establishment of an Adhocracy and
premature rejection of potentially valuable new ideas," if no
should thus be avoided in an R&D setting. A willingness to take
sufficient emphasis is put on the introduction of novel ideas as a
risks has already been mentioned as conducive to creativity
management principle (Mumford 2000). Again, it seems to be
several times. It thus seems fitting to consider the risks posed by
essential to define "success" in a way that allows creative failure
a creative approach to problem solving. The main risk in taking
to be considered a necessary step on the way to improved
a new path lies in abandoning a well-trodden one. This has to be
done at a point in time when it is not clear where the new path
Figure 6: A risk associated with creativity lies in the unknown potential of method B (adapted from Young (2007))
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
Since R&D has a time-lagged, sporadic, and non-market nature
employees‟ creativity than the actual, objective work
in relation to its outputs its success is hard to evaluate by
environment (Schepers 2007). Again, it is "in their heads" where
standard measures like turnover or revenue (Elkins & Keller
creativity starts, and environmental factors will only influence
2003). This might be the reason why organisations with a strong
their state of mind in an indirect way.
financial focus (Market type culture) tend to be less innovative than strategically oriented enterprises. In Market type
5.2. Employee perception of environmental conditions
organisations, incremental innovation can be viable, while the introduction of more radical ideas might require the creation of new divisions, spinning off part of the company or licensing the
To determine the social factors of work-environment creativity,
technology to other enterprises (Mumford 2000). Apart from
Schepers & van den Berg (2007) evaluated 154 questionnaires
that, market-oriented cultures will prefer stable groups, as the
completed by employees of the Civil Engineering Division of
efficiency of well-rehearsed teams is considerably higher than
the Dutch Ministry of Transport. They sum up their results by
that of ad-hoc groups, which in turn exhibit a higher output of
stating that work-environment creativity is predominantly
creativity (see section 4.1). The introverted nature of the Clan
fostered by employee Adhocracy perception, the felt opportunity
makes it less apt for creative work, at least in a technological
for employees to participate in the decision making process, and
sense. Fisher et al. (2005) emphasise that integrating diversity,
the willingness of employees to share their knowledge.
making all voices heard, and valuing openness and transparency,
Knowledge sharing, in turn, is encouraged if teams are
all features typical of a Clan, are highly beneficial for the
perceived as cooperative (rather than competitive) and if
development of social creativity. This creativity, however, is
employees expect to be treated in a fair way (figure 7). It is
introverted, and might not be interested enough in what is
again of special interest that individual and group perceptions
happening in the outside world to actively develop solutions for
are of higher influence than measurable environmental facts.
real world problems. On the other hand, this tendency to ponder
The combination of employee participation, freedom of
on its own issues makes the Clan very apt for the production of
expression and high performance standards seems to be most
artistic outcomes, where usefulness is not of paramount
suitable for creativity and innovation in the eyes of these
importance. Finally, it has to be noted that the individual
perception of organisational culture has a higher influence on
Figure 7: Factors conducive to work-environment creativity
advanced computing facilities has been identified as a major
(adapted from Schepers & van den Berg (2007))
requirement for creativity in the case of aeronautical engineering by Young (2007). But sophisticated computational tools can be double-edged swords: McMasters & Cummings (2002) caution
On the other hand, a feeling of personal insecurity is detrimental
against blind trust in simulation software as in many cases
to the development of creativity. This feeling can be brought
software engineers have included so many of their own biases
about by a seeming lack of support from the management
and assumptions into the code that truly new ideas might well be
(Wong 2003) and will be drastically intensified by precarious
determined as "beyond reality" if tested with software of this
work contracts (Heinze 2007).
kind. Adequate buildings and working schedules can also be conducive to creativity. Some examples are: (i) Leaving spaces
5.3. Resources
for informal discussion (e.g. large staircases and coffee rooms), (ii)
interdisciplinary contacts, (iii) avoiding large offices with many
Heinze (2007) found that major creative events (in the sense of
employees that might create an atmosphere where informal
scientific breakthroughs) are more likely to occur in
discussion is discouraged. Common lunch breaks provide good
environments that provide some source of stable basic funding.
opportunities of communication between employees of different
He suggests that this reliability gives substantial freedom to
organisational areas. Schedules that allow and encourage this
think, especially about matters of no immediate utility. At the same time it reduces scientists‟ time spent on money
will also help to support creativity (Heinze 2007).
The highly creative scientists he interviewed agreed that considerably more well-endowed multi-year awards should be
granted to scientists, especially in the ascending stage of their career.Although the availability of resources is prerequisite for
6. CONCLUSIONS
the effective performance of creative work, there is some evidence that over-abundance may lead to a loss in efficiency, mainly due to a loss of focus (Mumford 2000). In a similar
Creativity research has contributed many practical guidelines on
manner, the introduction of a novel technology in itself might
how to manage R&D in a way that fosters creativity. Most
decrease creativity. This happens if employees are confused by
suggestions do not require the raising of major funds, but it is
the introduction of a new process, method or machine (Claver
often small things that make a difference. It would certainly be
1998). Knowledge is the main resource for producing
desirable to create an ideal environment for creativity by
knowledge. Access to relevant data-bases, literature and
combining as many positive factors as possible, but even the
MEANJIN – Arts & Humanities Journal (ISSN: 0025-6293), Vol 6 Issue 1 (2014) PP: 13-24, www.meanjin.xp3.biz
well-considered adjustments of a few parameters might have a
industrial settings (section 5.1). It seems worthwhile to compare
considerable bearing on creativity. Most of the proposals
this theoretical framework with studies on corporate culture to
compiled in this review will support each other in the actual
fathom out correspondences and inconsistencies. Concerning
process of enhancing creativity. Heinze (2007) has identified
theoretical considerations, there is a need to reconcile
one particular set of contextual circumstances that, combined
componential and sequential theories that exist side by side
with the individual talents of scientists, is highly likely to lead to
without having many joints to connect them. Some ideas on how
creative research: "Many of our highly creative researchers were
they could be brought together have been outlined in section 2.3.
recruited to these labs at an early stage in their careers, either as
This review shows that some valuable research on workplace
postdocs or junior staff researchers, and integrated into a
creativity in R&D environments has already been conducted in
mission oriented research program while giving them significant
recent years, but it also points out that a number of issues remain
freedom to pursue the aspect of the overall program that they
still unresolved. As effective R&D is considered a main driving
were most interested in or excited about. […] The context for
force in modern economies, further studies should be carried out
this sort of work was characterized by organisations that
in this rewarding field of creativity research.
provided significant job stability for its staff researchers, a base level of funding, […] and access to a large diversity of skills and
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© SYMPHONYA Emerging Issues in Management, n. 2, 2014 symphonya.unimib.it Preventing Corruption in Africa: Emerging Challenges in the Mining Sector of the Democratic Republic of Congo* Cosetta Pepe**, Jean Marie Mushagalusa Nshombo***, Mario Risso**** The globalisation of economies and markets, brings out the full importance of the